Mainstream Media Meets Citizen
Journalism:
By Rachelle Goh
CMS Senior Thesis
Readers: Julie
Dobrow, Stephen Wilmarth
April 20, 2007
A PDF version of this paper may be viewed
at the
following address, including graphics, links and a table of contents:
http://www.mediagiraffe.org/tufts-thesis/tufts-thesis.pdf
Rachelle Goh (USA Phone: 857-928-6402) is an International Relations
major and
Communications and Media Studies minor at Tufts University, in Medford, Mass. (USA). She has always been interested in
current affairs and in
the interaction between media and society. In 2002, she began blogging, talking mostly about her daily life and her thoughts on what was happening around her, but often self-censoring her writing. Coming from Singapore, where the freedom of the press is limited, she found the concept of citizen journalism intriguing and decided to dig deeper into it through this senior thesis. In her free time, Rachelle likes to cook for her friends, do crossword puzzles, and watch CSI. She is excited to join the conversation on citizen journalism and hopeful for the future of the news media industries.
Problem Statement
In
2002, I hopped on the blogging bandwagon and started my own web log (or blog)
on the pretext that I could
type much faster than I could write, and so it made
more sense to type my thoughts out in order to keep up with myself.
Of course,
I could easily have kept a private diary in a Microsoft Word document, but the
idea that putting my thoughts
on the Internet would make them available to
everyone and anyone intrigued me. While my blog began as a space for me to
vent
my frustrations and ÒrecordÓ the events that took place in my everyday life
– a sort of archive in case I
forgot, I soon realized that through my
blog, I was able to share my views on current events or certain social
issues
with anyone who had Internet access. I was also able to point out issues or
occurrences that I thought deserved
more attention. There was something
captivating about knowing that even a ÒnobodyÕsÓ opinion like mine could be
heard.
As Dan Gillmor writes, Òthe read/write Web was truly born again. We
could all write, not just read, in ways never
before possible. For the first
time in history, at least in the developed world, anyone with a computer and
Internet
connection could own a press. Just about anyone could make the news.Ó[1]
And just about anyone has. With the rise of citizen journalism, an
increasing
number of people are Ògetting their understanding of the world from random
lunatics riffing in their
underwear, rather than professional journalists with
standards and passports.Ó[2]
This
Communications and Media Studies senior project aims to explore the issue of
citizen journalism: what does
citizen journalism mean for the newspaper
industry? Of all the different forms of mainstream media, the newspaper
enjoys
the longest history. Despite the invention of the radio and the television, and
their advantage of being more
vivid and attractive in their telling of the same
news, the newspaper managed to survive in those days by adapting and
keeping up
with the times. More recently, newspapers have also had to deal with the
ÒexplosionÓ of the Internet over
the past few years. Although most newspaper
companies have responded by putting their content online for users to
access for
free, some newspapers, such as the New York Times, have now put select content
behind a subscription wall
– one has to pay to access such content. This
move by the New York Times has been lauded by some, and heavily
criticized by
others. Exactly how newspapers should harness the power of the Internet is one
of the questions that this
Communications and Media Studies senior project will
attempt to answer.
Another
issue facing newspapers today is that of
citizen journalism. The rise of
citizen journalism, whether it be the ÒinformalÓ blogs offering someoneÕs take
on the
news, or more Òformal,Ó organized platforms such as www.ohmynews.com,
www.globalvoicesonline.org, and
www.backfence.com, is changing the way in which
society receives and transmits information. The Pew Research Center for
the
People and the Press claims that Ò11 percent of Internet users – 14
million Americans – read blogs,Ó
and that growth has been astounding
– Òin 2003, 2.5 million people blogged and in 2004, as many as 8.8
million
people blogged.Ó[3]
According to measurement tool technorati.com, 15,000 new weblogs are
created
every day and new conversations are initiated every 3 seconds.[4]
Today, Òcitizens consume the content that citizens create.Ó[5]
But is citizen journalism affecting the way news is reported and
received as
much as it has been hyped to?
This
is a huge area of concern that is especially worrying for journalists and
the
newspaper industry, as it foretells a time when newspapers may not even be
necessary anymore. It is obvious that
people in the business of journalism are
concerned: the theme of MITÕs Communications Forum this year was
ÒWill
Newspapers Survive?Ó and HarvardÕs Shorenstein Center for Press, Politics and
Public Policy celebrated its
20th anniversary with a series of panel
discussions on topics including ÒTraditional News Media: Optimism,
Pessimism
and RealismÓ and ÒNew Media and News: Peering Over the Horizon.Ó At the same
time, the growth of citizen
journalism also raises issues for citizens
themselves. The use of the word ÒcitizenÓ to describe their form of
journalism
carries with it connotations of participation in a democratic society. Does
citizen journalism really have
democratic potential and what does that mean for
society? This Communications and Media Studies senior project will
look into
all of these issues surrounding citizen journalism.
Project Significance
Firstly,
this project has great social and academic significance as it deals with a
current phenomenon that is
pertinent to our abilities to be well-informed
citizens of a democratic society. Recent events such as the London
train
bombings in 2005 show how citizen journalism played an active role in shaping
media coverage in the immediate
aftermath. A smoky image of people being
evacuated along a train tunnel minutes after the bombing was taken by
Adam
Stacey on his camera phone, and posted online on Alfie DennenÕs mobile blog
within an hour of its occurrence.[6]
Over the next few hours, news organizations such as the BBC, CNN and
the New
York Times jumped on
this picture and used it in
their breaking news reports. This camera phone
picture, taken by an ordinary Londoner at a place and time that was
not
accessible to the cameramen of mainstream media, has come to define the London
train bombings, and demonstrates how
the relationship between mass media and
society is changing. The debate on the use and significance of
citizen
journalism is very vibrant right now, and I hope to join the conversation.
Secondly,
this project also has political significance. Citizen journalism has become
involved in the United
StatesÕ political scene, one recent example being the
video of Senator George Allen using the racial slur ÒmacacaÓ
during a campaign
stop spreading like wildfire through YouTube.com, stirring up enough controversy
that finally cost
Senator Allen his 2006 bid for re-election.[7]
As the 2008 elections approach, many candidates have recognized the
power of
citizen journalism and are beginning to harness it through posting videos
online and recruiting political
bloggers as part of their campaign. It will be
exciting to see how much citizen journalism will affect the upcoming
elections.
Third,
this project is personally significant. As I am personally involved in using
the Internet to get my voice
heard, and have a deep-seated interest in the
numerous issues surrounding this powerful tool, this project will help me
see
how my actions and interests fit into the bigger picture.
This
project also took on another level of significance in light of the shooting
that occurred at Virginia Tech
on Monday, April 16th, 2007. In the
hours that followed, it was the blogs of Virginia Tech students that
provided
eyewitness accounts of what had happened and a live count of the death toll.
Unable to provide this news
faster than the students themselves, the mainstream
media turned to these blogs as their sources of information, often
lagging
behind the blogs in the death toll (ABC News was still reporting a death toll
of 20 students when it had
already reached 33 on blogs – which later
turned out to be the correct number). A video of police running with
their
weapons drawn and gunshots being fired in the background, captured by a student
with his cell phone camera,
became the backdrop of all the mainstream mediaÕs
reporting. This incident, one of the first major ones since the birth
of social
networking sites like Facebook and MySpace, resulted in a furor of activity
that may also have had a harmful
effect on the public sphere by providing
un-vetted misinformation. While I am deeply moved by this incident and
continue
to pray for the students at Virginia Tech, I also recognize the significance
that it has for the role of
citizen journalism in the media industries.
Literature Review
In
order to better understand the discussion of citizen journalism, I will first
provide background information
in certain key areas: the role of journalism,
the rise of the Internet and the Internet as a form of mass media, a
working
definition of citizen journalism, examples of different forms of citizen journalism,
and the current
conversations on issues surrounding citizen journalism.
The Role of Journalism
The
press, or journalism, is often referred to as the fourth estate – a
necessary component that acts as
the watchdog for a healthy democracy. This is
a huge responsibility, indicative of the important and integral role
that
journalism plays in our society. According to Michael Schudson, journalism is
Òthe business of a set of
institutions that publicizes periodically (usually
daily) information and commentary on contemporary affairs, normally
presented
as true and sincere, to a dispersed and anonymous audience so as to publicly
include the audience in a
discourse taken to be publicly important.Ó[8]
In this definition, we see that journalism is both a ÒbusinessÓ and
at the same
time a practice that should serve the public interest – goals that seem
to be mutually exclusive. Two
models that are used to understand the media
business – the market model and the public interest model –
provide
different frameworks within which to analyze and understand this tension
between business interests and the
public interest that exists in journalism.
Market Model vs. Public Interest Model
The
Market Model is similar to the perfect competition or free market model that one
would encounter in
economics. It suggests that ÒsocietyÕs needs can best be met
through a relatively unregulated process of exchange based
on the dynamics of
supply and demand.Ó[9] In other
words, profit-seeking businesses will always be able to
provide for the demands
of consumers as long as there is free competition amongst producers. Hence, the
media should
not be regulated by the government. Instead, by being
profit-seeking, it will best be able to meet the publicÕs needs.
While this
economics-focused model argues that having a free market promotes efficiency,
responsiveness, flexibility
and innovation within the media industry, it can
also give rise to monopolies or homogenized competition, which are a
disservice
to the public.[10]
Applying
this framework to journalism provides an explanation for some recent trends.
For example, news
producers have both been responsive and flexible to the
demands of their consumers, giving them more of what they want
and less of what
they do not want, and adapting to these demands quickly. However, these
advantages of free markets
have resulted in a sharp rise in the production of
infotainment – a watered-down version of news programs,
including more
entertainment features than serious content. The need to remain competitive and
increase viewership in
the short run has led many news broadcasters to produce
more infotainment and less Òhard news.Ó Such news programs are
unlikely to
provide enough Òinformation and commentary on contemporary affairsÓ[11]
to produce an informed
citizenry.
Furthermore,
in order to stay ahead of the competition, news producers have found it
necessary to constantly
provide news, whether it be on cable television with
news around the clock, or through morning and evening editions of
the same
newspaper with ÒnewÓ news later in the day. Due to the flexibility, efficiency
and innovation of news
producers in a free market, they have responded to
consumer demands by providing a neverending stream of news. Although
it may
appear to be a good development at first, the pressure on journalists to
constantly produce new stories has
resulted in a sub-par standard of reporting,
with sources that are not thoroughly checked because of the time pressure
to be
the first to break the news.
More
worrisome is the fact that mergers and acquisitions have taken place in the
media industry resulting in the
convergence of a few big media conglomerates
controlling numerous sources of information. Unbeknownst to most of
the
population, when they switch from CBS to UPN, or from MTV to Nickelodeon, they
are still watching content owned by
Viacom. Even when they watch Paramount
films and read books published by Simon & Schuster, they are
still receiving content controlled by
Viacom.[12]
Six media
conglomerates – Viacom, Time Warner, General Electric, Vivendi,
News Corp, and Disney – control ninety
percent of what we see, hear, and
read.[13]
That is scary to say the least. What happens to democracy when only
a few
powerful voices can be heard? In the strong words of Ronnie Dugger, Òthese few
corporate monarchs set the
pervading tones and agendas for us all. ÉFreedom of
the press has been upside-downed into corporate control of the
pressÉ Freedom
of the press, far from guaranteeing democracy – its purpose when the
country was founded –
now protects the corporations that are methodically
debasing democracy.Ó[14]
Unlike
the Market Model, the Public Sphere Model,
on the other hand, suggests that the
free market does not satisfy all of societyÕs needs.[15]
Moreover, there are
some societal needs that Òsimply cannot be met via the
marketÕs supply and demand dynamic.Ó[16]
These needs, such as diversity and substance, are in the public
interest, but
because they have little economic value, are disregarded in a market system
based on consumer purchasing
power. Finally, the Public Sphere Model argues
that Òbecause it is vital to a robust democracy, media content cannot
be
treated as merely another productÉ profitability cannot be the sole indicator
of a healthy media industry.Ó[17]
As such, this model acknowledges the role that the government can
play in the
media industry to ensure that public interests are met.
According
to Croteau and Hoynes, analyzing the
media through the public sphere framework
reveals some shortcomings of the free market system. Firstly, the free
market
is not democratic – the company with the most money is entitled to more
power and influence in the
marketplace. Secondly, as a result of the
undemocratic nature of the free market, inequality is perpetuated. The
income
inequality present in society is reflected in the media: as explained above, we
tend only to hear the voices and
opinions of the rich and powerful mediaconglomerates, while independent sources struggle to be heard. Third, the
free
market system does not have moral values, as everything is based on
profitability. Lastly, the free market is
unable to meet social or democratic
needs.[18]
For example, the public media is Òan invaluable resource that
should be
available to citizens regardless of their ability to pay,Ó[19]
but the forces of supply and demand do not allow for the provision
of such
public goods. Also, news created toward Ògrabbing and holding the attention of
consumers by shocking or
pandering to themÓ[20]
does not serve to inform the public and allow them to participate
in meaningful
democratic discussion.
Evidently,
the basic difference between the Market Model and the Public Sphere
Model is
the way in which they view people: the Market Model sees people as consumers
whereas the Public Sphere Model
sees people as citizens.[21]
While the Market Model depicts the reality of journalism these
days, the Public
Sphere Model illustrates an ideal of what journalism should look like: a system
that is accessible to
everyone, where there is a free flow of information, and
where there is breadth and diversity in the ownership and
control of media
outlets.[22] The
development and rise of the Internet as a new form of mass
media has brought
journalism one step closer to this ideal.
The Rise of the Internet
Most
of
us today cannot remember the world without email, instant messaging and
Google. ParentsÕ stories of growing up without
computers sound sacrilegious to
todayÕs Information Age individuals working in a knowledge-based economy.
Although the
Internet is relatively young, it has revolutionized mass communications
in such a way that people now think of time as
pre-Internet and post-Internet.
In fact, the Internet started out as a military system and only became
available to the
public in 1995.[23]
However, in the short span of ten years, the growth of the Internet
has been
staggering. In December 1995, the Internet had 16 million users, or 0.4% of the
world population. Just five
years later, the number of users had skyrocketed to
361 million, more than 22 times the original number.[24]
The latest statistics
in December 2006 indicate that there are now 1.1 billion
Internet users, making up 16.6% of the world population.[25]
This rate of growth is
unprecedented. According to some media analysts, Òit
took electricity 50 years to reach 50 million users in the United
States,
whereas it took radio 38 years, it took personal computers 16 years, it took
television 13 years, and it took
the Internet just 4 years.Ó[26]
Indeed, John Pavlik did not exaggerate when he hailed the Internet
as Òthe
first and perhaps most powerful medium of global interactive communications.Ó[27]
Not
only is the Internet revolutionary because of its global reach, it is also the
one medium that has been able
to integrate all other forms of communication.
While the television combined only audio and video, the Internet
embraces Òall
the capabilities of the older media (text, images, graphics, animation, audio,
video, real-time
delivery).Ó[28]
What is more, the Internet also enables Òinteractivity, on-demand
access, user
control, and customization.Ó[29]The Internet has undeniably become a form of mass media. But that is
not all.
The Internet is still constantly growing and evolving as users explore its
different facets and discover new
ways of harnessing its communicative power.
The Rise of Blogging
One
of
these new forms of communication is the web log, better known as the Òblog.Ó
A blog is an online journal of sorts, a
personal space on the Internet that a
blogger (someone who writes a blog) can fill with whatever content
he/she
pleases. Some Internet users have used their blogs to talk about their everyday
lives, to provide insight into
their line of work (work blogs), to talk about
new gadgets and technological developments (tech blogs), to comment on
politics
– the list is virtually endless. According to one journalist, these blogs
are Òproliferating like stars
in the sky.Ó[30]
74.9 million stars, to be more exact – a result of the
blogosphere (total
blogs tracked) doubling every 5-7 months from 2004 to 2006.[31]
Although the recent
doubling rate of blogs (tracked by Technorati) has slowed
to 320 days – and this is slow only in comparison to
its initial growth
rate – it is more because of TechnoratiÕs improved ability to filter out
splogs (spam blogs).
TechnoratiÕs April 2007 ÒThe State of the Live WebÓ report
boldly claims that Òthe state of the Blogosphere is strong,
and is maturing as
an influential and important part of the web.Ó[32]
While
a
good number of these blogs are personal rants, have low readership, or could
even be dead, there are a number in each
industry/field that have risen to the
level of national prominence. For example, in the area of politics, blogs
like
Daily Kos (http://www.dailykos.com), a
liberal blog, receive about 600,000
daily visits.[33]
Engadget (http://www.engadget.com), a
tech blog, ranked number 19 in TechnoratiÕs ÒTop 50
Blogs and Mainstream MediaÓ
ranking, with more than 20,000 inbound blog sources.[34]
Indeed, the blogging
phenomenon has changed the information landscape. ÒThey
[blogs] were the first tool that made it easy – or at
least easier
– to publish on the Web.Ó[35]
Anyone with a computer now owns a press.[36]
No longer are individuals merely consumers, they are now also
producers of
information. This paradigm shift from consumer to consumer
and producer has sparked an entire movement
of user-generated
content now known as Web 2.0.
Web 2.0
The
combined December 25, 2006 and January 1, 2007 issue of TIME was titled ÒPerson of the Year: You.Ó On
the cover was a graphic of a computer showing a YouTube video
being played.
Reflective Mylar was used to create a mirror for the screen portion of the
graphic because it Òliterally
reflects the idea that you, not we, are
transforming the information age.Ó[37]
This development from the Internet as simply another means through
which
producers could reach consumers to the Internet as a tool for consumer
empowerment has been dubbed ÒWeb 2.0.Ó In
the age of Web 2.0, it is Ònot enough
just to find that obscure old movie; now you can make your own film,
distribute
it worldwide and find out what people think almost instantly.Ó[38]
Not surprisingly, a
plethora of websites has sprung up to jump on the Web 2.0
bandwagon.
Some
noteworthy websites that promote the Web 2.0 mindset include:
- Amazon.com – its use of
customer reviews, lists and guides
(providing Òif you liked thisÉÓ-style
recommendations) has made shopping a communal experience;
- Wikipedia – a
crowdsourcing model that shows that Òthe masses are as smart as the
experts;Ó[39]
- YouTube – the video
hosting
and sharing site that allows everyone to be director, producer and
actor;
- Digg – a
website that
allows the crowd to become news editors by ÒdiggÓ-ing stories that they
like and ÒburyingÓ those that they
do not like;
- Last.fm – the
self-proclaimed Òsocial music revolutionÓ that Òlearns
what you likeÓ in
order to make personalized recommendations and connect users with similar
tastes.[40]
This list is
certainly not exhaustive, with many more websites emerging to join
their ranks
every day.
Whether
all this user-generated content can be considered citizen journalism is
questionable as it depends on
oneÕs definition of citizen journalism, which is
by no means set in stone at this point. What is clear though, is that
Òfrom
YouTube auteurs to bloggers to amateur photographers competing with the
paparazzi, user-generated content is
revolutionizing the media landscapeÓ and
is something that everyone, especially those in the media industries, needs
to
be aware of.
Working Definition of Citizen Journalism
Citizen
journalism is one of many buzzwords that were born as a result of the
development and rise of the
Internet. Broadly speaking, it refers to a break
down in the traditional relationship between the Òmonologue
broadcasterÓ and
the Ògrateful viewer.Ó[41]
Because of the globalization and empowerment that the Internet
causes,
Òjournalists now need to think about a global audience that not only reads what
they write and report but can
comment, provide perspective, and offer newinsight into the complexities of an increasingly global
society.Ó[42]
Much like how the clothing brand FUBU acquired the meaning ÒFor Us,
By UsÓ
(referring to African Americans) in its attempt to make a statement against
predominantly white-owned sportswear
companies exploiting African American
culture for their clothing designs, citizen journalism has come to mean a type
of
journalism that is Òof the people, by the people, as well as for the
people;Ó[43] a type of
journalism
that has its roots in a dissatisfaction with the quality of news coming
from the media
conglomerates.
However,
many in the media industries agree that citizen journalism is somewhat of a
misnomer. Journalism,
according to Phil Primack, is a process Òthat centers on fact-based, balanced, edited and
verified
information, presented in a coherent and understandable way, to as broad an
audience as possible.Ó[44]
It is a Òscience that requires some training and
qualifications, certain
ethical standards, and credibility.Ó[45]
Therefore, so defined, it is not possible for any random citizen to
be a
journalist, but it is, however, possible for any random citizen to practice
journalism, provided that facts are
checked, information is verified, and the
information is broadcast – a given with the
Internet.
Looking
at the bigger picture, Bill Densmore claims that Òthe phrase Òcitizen
journalismÓ is an imperfect attempt to describe a
new class of observer and participant in the public
sphere.Ó[46]
According to Densmore, before the Industrial Revolution things
moved at a
slower pace and citizens were able to engage in civic affairs locally and
personally, thus there was little
need for a journalist. But as the world
population grew, globalization occurred, and business and communication
took
place at a faster pace, citizens were less able to personally experience
everything that was going on around them;
Òand so the civic sphere began to
depend upon proxies of the public to gather critical news –
journalists.Ó[47]
However, over time, commercial interests have taken over these
journalistic
services, influencing the type of news that is reported and preventing
Òinformation necessary for the
functioning of a democracyÓ[48]
to be broadcast. Citizen journalism is therefore the new
development of
citizens taking advantage of the low cost of entry, through the Internet, to
once again observe and
participate in the public sphere. It is a Òform of
social productionÓ[49]
that is redefining the concept of community on the
Internet.[50]
As such, the concept of citizen journalism is constantly changing
and evolving
every day.
In
the seminal report ÒWe Media: How Audiences are Shaping the Future of News and
Information,Ó citizen
journalism is described as Òa citizen or citizens playing
an active role in the process of collecting, reporting,
analyzing anddisseminating news and information.Ó[51]
This is the working definition of citizen journalism that will be
used for the
purposes of this thesis. To further elaborate on this definition,
citizen
journalism:
Écan encompass blogs that represent
commentary on the dayÕs
events or blogs that serve as community news postings.
It can involve a wiki, in which a news item or commentary is
posted and anyone
can add to or edit it. It can be a podcast reviewing favorite groups on a local
music scene. It can
be a collaborative effort between a reporter and experts to
write and report a story, or it can entail a niche group of
people, such as
office workers or homeless activists, who publish news, information, and
insights about their world.[52]
While it may
seem as if citizen journalism is creeping into every aspect of
mainstream media
to overthrow existing practices, it is important to realize that citizen
journalism is not necessarily
an attempt to take over the traditional news
media, but to complement and supplement it.[53]
In fact, both forms of journalism will not be able to survive
independently.
This discussion will be pursued later in the thesis.
Types and Examples of Citizen Journalism
To
ensure a more complete understanding of the different forms that citizen
journalism can take, this section of
the literature review will showcase a few
examples. The following examples are by no means better than others, but
were
selected more to clearly illustrate the different types of citizen journalism.
The types of citizen journalism
highlighted here are also not exhaustive. As
this field is changing every day, not only is an exhaustive list
virtually
impossible to compile, it will also be out-of-date within minutes.
Hyperlocal News
–
Backfence.com
Figure 1: Screen shot of
Backfence.com (17 April, 2007)
Backfence.com,
started by Mark Potts and Susan DeFife, revolves around the idea
of, literally,
a back fence – but in virtual reality. Before the age of computers, the
back fence was the place
where conversations between neighbors frequently took
place, where information about the local community was exchanged.
Now, people
rarely have the time to stand at their back fences and talk to their neighbors.
They may work long hours,
have to shuttle the children around, or may simply want
to multi-task. Not only does Backfence.com allow people to do
all that they
need to do while still keeping in touch with the goings-on in their
neighborhood, it expands the
conversation from one between next-door neighbors,
to one between everyone in the entire community. Answers to
questions such as ÒWhat's happening with the new development down the street?
Does anybody
know a good house painter? What's the best place in town to find
good Thai food? Who's going to be the new junior high
school principal? Anybody
got tips about good bike trails? When is the next PTA
meeting?Ó[54]
can all be found at Backfence.com, where all content is
citizen-generated. In
their words: Ònone of us knows as much as all of us.Ó[55]
Accordingto co-founder Susan DeFife, Backfence.com was started Òto fill a gap left by
metropolitan daily
newspapers that were stretching to cover the ever-expanding
metropolitan area.Ó[56]
What is exciting about Backfence.com is that although it began by
catering to
one neighborhood in the suburbs of Washington, D.C., its model of providing
hyperlocal news has caught on
and Backfence.com now operates in 13 different
neighborhoods, including some in California and Illinois. The founders
have
also been able to make this venture economically viable by hosting local
advertisements and online business
listings, and have even recently received
funding from investors.
International News
–
Globalvoicesonline.org
Figure 2: Screenshot of
Global Voices Online (17 April, 2007)
Global Voices Online is a non-profit citizen journalism projectthat was initiated by Harvard Law
SchoolÕs Berkman Center for Internet and
Society. The website aims to Òaggregate, curate, and
amplifyÓ[57]
global conversations, drawing special attention to areas and people
that are
usually overlooked by the mainstream media. In order to ensure the credibility
and legitimacy of the bloggers
and the stories that they contribute to the
website, Global Voices Online has an international team of volunteer
authors,
regional blogger-editors and translators that have either been invited to
contribute or hired (editors).
Because these people are natives of their
country, they are able to understand the context and relevance of
the
overwhelming amount of information that comes out of their country every day,
to sieve through this information,
make sense of it, and highlight what
mainstream media is leaving out and bloggers are picking
up.[58]
The
team at Global Voices Online recognizes that Òthe international
English-language media ignores many things
that are important to large numbers
of the worldÕs citizens, É[and] aims to redress some of the inequities in
media
attention by leveraging the power of citizensÕ media.Ó[59]
Part of their work towards this goal includes an Outreach program
that helps
people in oppressed areas to find their voice online, and the daily translation
of their news content into
seven different languages – perhaps more in
the future.
Online Newspaper
–
Ohmynews.com
Figure 3: Screenshot of OhmyNews
(17 April, 2007)
Seven
years ago, before citizen journalism was a
buzzword, Oh Yeon-ho of South Korea
started OhmyNews, an experiment that he hoped would encourage Òevery citizen to
be
a reporter.Ó[60] Seven years
later, OhmyNews has become a poster child for citizen
journalism. The original
Korean version of OhmyNews began with 727 citizen reporters and 4
editors,[61]and now boasts 41,000 citizen reporters.[62]
All articles are read by staff editors before being published
online –
Òabout 70 percent of the roughly 200 stories submitted each dayÓ[63]
make the cut. In fact,
according to Oh, Òwhile citizens like to write their own
articles, many also like to be edited by professional
journalists.Ó[64]
With this in mind, OhÕs model has merged the benefits of citizen
journalism,
such as its diversity of voices, with the benefits of traditional journalism
– its editing and
vetting capacity. Furthermore, OhmyNews has an
interesting economic aspect: contributors of top stories that make it to
the
front page are paid ten to twenty dollars, and Òsite users can pay a ÒtipÓ to a
particular storyÕs citizen reporter
if they like the story.Ó[65]
This could very well become a business model for citizen journalism
in the
future.
In
2003, this OhmyNews model of journalism was replicated in Denmark by Eric
Larsen, creator of Flix.dk.[66]
Soon after, in 2004, an English version of OhmyNews –
OhmyNews
International – was launched. This expansion in outreach was followed by
an expansion in content to
include podcasts and video with citizen anchors.
Most recently, OhmyNews Japan debuted in 2006 with 1,000 citizen
reporters.[67]Oh may not have realized this back in 2000, but what he has started
could very
well be the basis for a new model of journalism. ÒThe traditional paper says ÔI
produce, you readÕ,Ó claims
Oh, Òbut we say Ôwe produce and we read and we
change the world together.ÕÓ[68]
Collaborative News
–
Wikinews.org
Figure 4: Screenshot of
Wikinews (17 April, 2007)
Employing
the same software
technology of its better-known counterpart Wikipedia,
Wikinews uses a wiki to enable anyone to revise or contribute
content.[69]
As such, news stories can be built from a single sentence
describing an event
or observation, with contributors adding, removing, and/or improving on the
content. It is
everyoneÕs collaborative effort that creates the news stories on
Wikinews. This form of ÒjournalismÓ facilitated the
reporting of incidents such
as the London train bombing in 2005 and the Indian Ocean tsunami in 2004. In
both cases,
Òthe beginnings of Wikinews articles appeared on the site within
minutes of the events. Initial information was just a
few sentences, but
revisions were made every few minutes,Ó[70]
and in this manner, a news story was developed. The beauty of wiki
technology
is that even today, years after those two events, the articles can still be
revised to further improve their
accuracy or updated to reflect new
information.
While
it is inevitable that ÒJohn SeigenthalersÓ[71]
will occur now and then, Wikinews has gone to great lengths to
ensure that the
news published on its websites is as close to journalistic standards as
possible. A Wikinews guide to
writing an article begins by asking the question
ÒIs your story news?,Ó directing users to the Wikinews content guide
where
specific instructions are given: articles must be written from a neutral point
of view, sources must be cited,
and reporting must be original.[72]
And if any of these standards are not met, we will have to trust
the 10,299
registered users (as of October 2006)[73]
to discover and revise.
Vlog –
Jetsetshow.com
Figure 5: Screenshot of
Jetset (18 April, 2007)
In
the
beginning, there were blogs where people could scribble their thoughts
online. Most were text-only. Then, as it became
easier to upload and store
photos on the Internet for free, people began inserting images in between their
text and
setting up photologs, or the pictorial version of a blog. Now, with
YouTube – a free distribution channel
allowing anyone and everyone to be
producer, director and actor, we have the vlog (video blog). Jetset, one of
many
vlogs currently in cyberspace, is a Vloggie Award winner. Created by Zadi
Diaz and Steve Woolf, it is a five-minute
weekly installment about global teen
culture, featuring correspondents in both the United States and
Japan.[74]
Unlike other vlogs
that feature people talking about their own lives, Jetset
provides an informal and upbeat kind of Òsoft
news.Ó
Combining
the concepts of vlogs and podcasting, Justin Kan has coined the term ÒlifecastingÓ
to describe his
project, Justin.tv. Kan has a camera attached to his head 24/7
– in the bathroom, on a date, in the car,
everywhere he goes – that
delivers a live feed to Justin.tv. The only time the camera is taken off his
head is
when he goes to bed. Essentially, what this means is that by going to
his website, we can see and experience the life
of Justin Kan for ourselves.
Although Justin.tv has only been broadcasting live for 30 days (as of April 18,
2007), it
has already gained hundreds of loyal viewers. Using a business model
based on product placement, ÒKanÕs ultimate goal
is to build the site into a
network of hundreds of lifecasters, each with their own channel, making it yet
another
competitor to traditional television.Ó[75]
While it is unclear if KanÕs ÒlifecastingÓ is citizen journalism
per se, it
will be interesting to see how it develops and if citizen journalists will
adopt the
concept.
Pro-Am Collaboration
–
Assignmentzero.net
Figure 6: Screenshot of
AssignmentZero (18 April, 2007)
Initiated
by New York UniversityÕs
Jay Rosen in March 2007, AssignmentZero is an
experiment in pro-am journalism. ÒProÓ refers to professional journalists
who
will guide, edit, set standards, oversee fact-checking and ultimately publish
the final version of the story. ÒAmÓ
refers to members of the public –
citizen journalists – who will voluntarily contribute to the project
on
their own time if they feel so inclined.[76]
Pro-am journalism, inspired by KoreaÕs OhmyNews, is the
collaborative effort of
both professionals and citizen journalists to produce news stories. While this
project is still
in the experimental stage and its outcome is hard to predict,
the hopes of a future model for journalism rest on its
success. In the words of
Rosen, ÒAssignmentZero is a starting point, a base line. Who knows where we
will end up. But
if reporting in the open style ever comes into its own –
at our site or someone elseÕs – that might very
well change journalism
and expand whatÕs humanly possible with the instrument of a free
press.Ó[77]
Many
other examples of citizen
journalism exist on the Internet, with that number
increasing every day. The Òcase studyÓ examples presented here
illustrate the
changing relationship between information and society. While in the past
society lapped up whatever
information the mainstream media presented to it,
now society is playing an active role in aggregating, organizing, and
even
creating information. However, there are two sides to every coin. Citizen
journalism has a lot of potential, but
it is not perfect.
Method
Interviews
Considering the fact that citizen journalism directly affects the livelihood of journalists and those working in the various media industries, it was only logical that I should interview industry professionals to get a sense of the sentiments of those in the field. My list of people to interview started out with contacts provided by both of my thesis readers, as they knew suitable people through their line of work. Some of these